Scholarly Literature

This is a database of scholarly literature that concentrates currently on natural and engineered selfish genetic elements (gene drives).  The latest are shown here.
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Insect control by genetic manipulation of natural populations

6300
M. J. Whitten,  Science,  171:682. 1971-02-19 19:57:36.
The possible use of chromosome rearrangements is considered as a means for introducing genes into insect populations for their own control. The release of laboratory-constructed strains differing from the field population for a number of chromosome interchanges should create an unstable situation leading to the rapid replacement of the field population. This replacement should allow introduction of genes for insecticide susceptibility, cold sensitivity, or the like. The process would produce sterile hybrids while the genetic displacement occurs which itself will contribute to a reduction in pest numbers.

The Sterile-Male Technique Against Tsetse Flies, Glossina Spp

26213
D. A. Dame and C. H. Schmidt,  16,  24-30. 1970-03-16 15:05:33.
Simpson (1958) discussed the relationship between the biological characteristics of the genus Glossina and the use of the sterile-male technique in the control of this vector of trypanosomiasis, as did Knipling in an informal report in 1963 on Practical Role of the Sterility Principle for Tsetse Fly Eradication in WHO/Vector Control/27. Knipling estimated that an initial overflooding ratio of sterile to wild males of 3: 1 with successively smaller releases could eradicate a low-density population of flies in 12 months (Table 1) at a cost of about 125/mile2, even if the sterilized males cost as much as 5 cents each. With larger populations, other methods would have to be used to reduce the density before the releases of sterile males. Also, Knipling (1964) emphasized the economic advantage that would be gained by reduction in the total number of sterile males required if their release were preceded by a single application of a nonpersistent insecticide which would eliminate most of the adult population. When populations cover a wide area, simultaneous treatment of the entire infested area might not be feasible. A more realistic approach (Table 2) could be to systemically expand small control areas along a common front (Dame 1968).

Mechanisms of meiotic drive

4502
Zimmering, SS, L.; Nicoletti, B.,  Annual Review of Genetics,  4:409-436. 1970-01-20 00:00:00.
Meiotic drive has been defined by Sandler & Novitski (157) as any alteration of the normal process of meiosis with the consequence that a heterozygote for two genetic alternatives produces an effective gametic pool with an excess of one type; such a pattern of behavior will drastically alter the frequency of alleles in a population in such a way that a driven allele may increase in frequency in spite of deleterious physiological effects. This general concept has, however, been taken to include transmissional anomalies that are not strictly meiotic, but with similar populational consequences [see, for example, Lewontin (93)]; this extended meaning seems justified and thus the more general definition will be used in this review.

Analysis of a general population genetic model of meiotic drive

4501
Hartl, DL,  Evolution,  24:538-545. 1970-01-19 00:00:00.
The purpose of this article is to present the detailed solution of a model of meiotic drive which Lewontin (1968) has suggested would be helpful in understanding the evo- lutionary dynamics of the t-alleles in the house mouse. Because mice tend to breed in small endogamous family units, however, the deterministic model is only a very rough approximation to what would be expected to occur in nature, and to gain better insight one is forced to undertake Monte Carlo simulation of small populations (Lewontin and Dunn, 1960; Lewontin, 1968).

Meiotic drive in natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster 9: Suppressors of segregation distorter in wild populations

4500
Hartl, DL,  Canadian Journal of Genetics and Cytology,  12:594-600. 1970-01-18 00:00:00.
A population of Drosophila melanogaster in Madison, Wisconsin, has been screened for suppressors of segregation distorter (SD), an autosomal meiotic drive element found in the same population. Three kinds of suppressors were tested for: (1) Y-linked suppressors, none were found, (2) X-linked suppressors, whose frequency was found to be 85%, and (3) autosomal dominant suppressors, which occur in 45% of autosome complements.The frequency of X-linked suppressors is comparable to that found in a Japanese population; autosomal suppressors are much more frequent in Madison than in Japan (Katoaka, 1967). The similarity in the frequency of sex-linked suppressors may result from the meiotic drive shown by the suppressor-X itself; the difference in the frequency of autosomal dominant suppressors is possibly related to a higher frequency of SD itself in the Madison population.

Possible use of translocations to fix desirable genes in insect populations.

4503
Curtis, CF,  Nature,  218:368-369. 1968-01-21 00:00:00.
Chromosome translocation heterozygotes (T/+) are usually semisterile, but translocation homozygotes (T/T) if viable are usually fully fertile. If such a viable translocation were produced in an insect pest, T/T insects could be reared in captivity and released into the wild, where matings with wild types (+/+) would produce T/+ progeny.

Meiotic drive and visible polarity in Drosophila spermatocytes

4504
Yanders, AFB, J. G.; Peacock, W. J.; Goodchild, D. J.,  Genetics,  59:245-253. 1968-01-02 00:00:00.
The model for meiotic drive presented by PEACOCK and ERICKSON (1965) demands that an intracellular differentiation exists at the time of the first meiotic division in spermatocytes. As a result of this differentiation, one of the spindle poles at anaphase I will lead to the formation of two functional sperm, while the other pole will yield two nonfunctional sperm. This model can be used to explain cases of meiotic drive, such as Segregation-Distorter (SD) ( SANDLER, HIRAIZUMI, and SANDLER 1959), if one member of a chromosome pair moves to the functional pole in a nonrandom fashion, and is thereby preferentially included in the functional gametes.

Eradication of Culex pipiens fatigans through cytoplasmic incompatibility.

6278
H. Laven,  Nature,  216:383. 1967-10-28 16:57:49.
Culex pipiens fatigans is the chief vector of filariasis in south-east Asia. Urbanization has often caused the numbers of this mosquito-and with it the danger of filariasis infection-to increase alarmingly. The natural vigour, tolerance and fast development of resistance to insecticides of this mosquito necessitate the development of other control methods, and cytoplasmic incompatibility2 seems to be an ideal means.

Extraordinary sex ratios

6186
W. D. Hamilton,  Science,  156:477-488. 1967-04-03 19:10:19.
The two sexes are usually produced in approximately equal numbers. Fisher (1) was the first to explain why, under natural selection, this should be so, irrespective of the particular mechanism of sex determination. His rather tersely expressed argument has been clarified by subsequent writers (2) and seems to be widely accepted. In bare outline, the factor of parental care being ignored, it may be given as follows: 1) Suppose male births are less common than female. 2) A newborn male then has better mating prospects than a newborn female, and therefore can expect to have more offspring. 3) Therefore parents genetically disposed to produce males tend to have more than average numbers of grandchildren born to them. 4) Therefore the genes for male-producing tendencies spread, and male births become commoner. 5) As the 1:1 sex ratio is approached, the advantage associated with producing males dies away. 6) The same reasoning holds if females are substituted for males throughout. Therefore 1:1 is the equilibrium ratio.

Genetic distortion of sex ratio in a mosquito Aedes aegypti

4505
Hickey, WAC, G. B.,  Genetics,  53:1177-1196. 1966-01-03 00:00:00.
CRAIG, HICKEY and VANDEHEY (1960) reported that a hereditary factor transmitted by males was responsible for high male ratios in A. aegypti. This phenomenon was designated as male-producing or MP. Males from high maleproducing families produced a high proportion of males in their own progeny, regardless of the type of female to which they were crossed. This condition was not due to selective mortality, at least in postgametic stages. In 1960, nothing was known about the sex-determining mechanism in A. aegypti. In addition, the male-producing lines available for study were highly variable in expression. These factors hampered more precise analysis of the mechanism of inheritance of MP. The present work was initiated because new crosses with different strains gave more pronounced and predictable distortion of sex ratios. Earlier strains gave about 15 to 30% female, whereas present lines produce about 0 to 15% female. This paper presents an analysis of the mode of inheritance of MP. In addition, data suggesting the mechanism of action are included. Separate reports will be published elsewhere on ( 1 ) the distribution and behavior of MP in experimental populations and (2) the effect of environment on expression of MP. A more detailed account of some of this work is given by HICKEY (1965a, b). Nomenclature used ih these preliminary reports is superseded by that in the present work.

Meiotic drive in Drosophila involving chromosome breakage

4506
Erickson, J,  Genetics,  51:555-571. 1965-01-04 00:00:00.
In ordinary genetic systems the members of a pair of unlike alleles, or of a pair of unlike chromosomes, are recovered in equal numbers among the off spring, barring complications affecting viability. Contrary to this expectation, in a number of studies it has been found that one allele or chromosome is recovered in significantly more than 50 percent of the functional gametes. The time and mode of the action resulting in inequality varies; where these phenomena result from events of the meiotic process they are known as instances of meiotic drive (SANDLER and NOVITSKI 1957). The case described herein was isolated from a chronically irradiated population (NOVITSKI and HANKS 1961), and was referred to as “29G” previously (HANKS 1961; ERICKSON and HANKS 1961). HANKS (1964) has renamed the line “RD”, referring to a disruption in recovery of the Y chromosome. which gives rise to a high-female sex ratio in the off spring of RD males.

Aanalysis of case of meiotic drive in Drosophila melanogaster

4507
Hanks, GD,  Genetics,  50:123-130. 1964-01-05 00:00:00.
IN the past ten years there has been a renewed interest in the abnormal recovery of chromosomes after meiosis; see for example DUNN (1953); NOVITSKI and SANDLER (1957) ; SANDLER and NOVITSKI ( 1957) ; LINDSLEY and SANDLER (1958); NOVITSKI and HANKS (1961); and MAGUIRE (1963). When the two types of gametes from a heterozygote are recovered with unequal frequency because of a meiotic mechanism the force resulting is called meiotic drive (SANDLER and NOVITSKI 1957). Such a force is capable of altering allele frequencies in a population, and thus the evolutionary consequences are potentially important; this has been discussed in detail by DUNN (1953) and SANDLER and NOVITSKI (1957). The case analyzed here was found by testing chromosomes from population cages maintained by WALLACE atCold Spring Harbor which were subjected to low intensity radiation for over 200 generations (WALLACE 1956). Earlier studies have indicated that the case here analyzed does not produce its effect by zygotic mortality, is manifested only in the male, and is greatly altered by temperature changes during the period of meiosis in the male (NOVITSKI and HANKS 1961; ERICKSON and HANKS 1961). This paper presents the genetic analysis of this case showing the extent to which its effect may be modified by substituting different sex chromosomes and autosomes.

Applications of genetic technology to mosquito rearing

6098
G. B. Craig,  Bulletin of the World Health Organization,  29:89-97. 1963-01-02 16:40:36.
Since the development of insecticide-resistance and the consequent partial failure of the chemical approach to the control of disease vectors, interest in the biological approach has re-awakened. An aspect of the latter approach that is of great current interest is " autocidal control "-that is, the use of insects for their own destruction. This paper discusses the various ways in which genetic mechanisms can be used to bring about the destruction of harmful insects, with special reference to those of medical importance. The author considers that the prospects for the genetic control of vector species are good, but stresses that before genetic methods can be applied on a field scale certain requirements must be met. For example, genetic technology must be expanded, a firm background of genetic knowledge of vector species must be built up, a great deal more information about vector ecology, particularly population dynamics, must be acquired, and techniques for the mass production of vector insects under controlled conditions must be developed.

On the role of lethal mutants in the control of populations

6101
R. C. Von Borstel and A. A. Buzzati-Traverso,  Radioisotopes and Radiation in Entomology: Proceedings of a Symposium, Bombay, 5-9 December, 1960,  1962:273-278. 1962-01-02 16:52:59.
On the role of lethal. mutants in the control of populations. Population control by release of irradiated males requires that the sperm must be damaged by radiation. The type of damage induced by radiation imposes a restriction on which species may be controlled because if the sperm are functionally damaged by radiation, then for effective control, the females must be monogamous. If dominant lethality is induced in sperm then either polygamy or monogamy may prevail. It is generally accepted that dominant lethal events are induced in sperm at doses much lower than those required to hamper sperm function or cause sperm inactivation. With Drosophila it is possible to test directly the effect of releasing irradiated males into an artificial population where polygamy is the rule. Preliminary experiments have been performed under conditions of unlimited production of offspring. It appears that radiation induces dominant lethality in sperm, and the sperm that bear dominant lethals are able to compete successfully with normal sperm. A series of tests are currently under way to ascertain the degree of induced dominant lethality and sperm inactivation at different X-ray dosages. A series of experiments are outlined in a general discussion of the possible use of dominant and recessive lethals for bringing about collapse of artificial and natural populations.

Meiotic drive in natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster .7. Conditional segregation distortion – a possible nonallelic conversion

4512
Sandler, LH, Y.,  Genetics,  46:585-604. 1961-01-10 00:00:00.
Males, heterozygous for the Segregation-distorter (SD) allele (located in or near the centromeric heterochromatin of the right arm of chromosome 11) and a standard tester second chromosome, regularly produce a preponderance of functional SD-bearing sperm ( SANDLER, HIRAIZUMI and SANDLER 1959). Segregation in heterozygous SD females, on the other hand, is always normal. It has been found, however, that, for certain SD lines, if the SD-bearing chromosome is inherited from the female parent, then, in a fraction of F, male sibships, only one half of the heterozygous SD sons exhibit the phenomenon of segregationdistortion; in the other half of the sons, segregation is normal. In the following generation, all of the males exhibit abnormal ratios irrespective of whether or not their father showed an abnormal ratio. Those females that produce sons. only one half of which distort, are referred to as conditioned; the phenomenon is termed conditional distortion ( SANDLER and HIRAIZUMI 1959)

Meiotic drive in natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster .8. A heritable aging effect on phenomenon of segregation distortion

4511
Sandler, LH, Y.,  Canadian Journal of Genetics and Cytology,  3:34-46. 1961-01-09 00:00:00.
Second chromosomes have been found in natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster that contain an abnormal centromere region which conditions a highly aberrant segregation ratio in heterozygous males (Sandler, Hiraizumi, and Sandler, 1959). In particular, when a chromosome carrying this abnormal region (symbolized SD for Segregation-distorter) is made heterozygous with a normal second chronlosome (routinely a standard tester chromosome marked by the recessives cn and bw) in males, and backcrossed to homozygous cn bw females, 90 per cent or more of the F1 receive the SD-bearing second chromosome. These abnormal segregation ratios are not accompanied by egg mortality. It has now, been found that as heterozygous SD males are aged, the segregation ratios become less abnormal. When, moreover, young sons of aged fathers are examined, it is found that they too exhibit less extreme segregation ratios. Indeed, changes in the segregation ratio induced by aging may persist in selected, males for at least five generations and possibly indefinitely. The evidence demonstrating a heritable aging effect and a consideration of certain other questions relevant to the aging phenomenon are presented below.

Analysis of irradiated Drosophila populations for meiotic drive

4510
Novitski, EH, G. D.,  Nature,  190:989-990. 1961-01-08 00:00:00.
The existence of chromosomes or alleles that are represented in the gametes of a heterozygote with a frequency greater than the expected 50 percent is now well established for a variety of species. The immediate population result of introducing such a chromosome or allele must be a sharp increase in its frequency, alon with any other genes associated by linkage, independent of or, indeed, in spite of, their phenotypic effects. For this reason such phenomena have been referred to as cases of 'drive' and, more specifically, as 'meiotic drive' when the basis is found in some aberration of meiosis. Such instances would seem to provide an unparalleled opportunity for the study of population dynamics, for example, the efficacy of response of natural selection to unfavourable genes. It seemed worth while, therefore, to determine whether such chromosomes or alleles characterized by drive might be induced in the laboratory.

Meiotic drive in natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster .6: A preliminary report on presence of segregation-distortion in a Baja california population

4509
Mange, EJ,  American Naturalist,  95:87-96. 1961-01-07 00:00:00.
Meiotic drive is a term coined by Sandler and Novitski (1957) to describe; the situation whereby a heterozygote produces gametes containing an excess; of one allele, rather than the expected equality. As a consequence of such; aberrant segregations, gene frequencies within a population may be radically; altered; indeed, detrimental or lethal genes closely linked to the driven gene; may increase in frequency, thereby leading to a reduction in fitness or pos; sibly even to extinction of the population.; An instance of meiotic drive in Drosophila melanogaster, discovered by; Hiraizumi in a Madison, Wisconsin, population, has been reported by Sandler,; Hiraizumi and Sandler (1959). The phenomenon, termed segregation-distortion,; was found to depend upon a locus designated SD, which is located in the; centromeric heterochromatin of chromosome II. The phenomenon is ex; pressed in males only.; Since segregation-distortion was originally found in a natural population,; the question arose as to whether the phenomenon is of recent origin and; therefore localized in the vicinity of Madison, or well established and hence; widespread among natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster. There; fore, the screening of wild populations for SD (or for any other type of aber; rant segregation) was undertaken. In small samples from only thirteen popu; lations, SD has been detected in one Baja California population as well as; in three other rather widely separated Madison populations. This report will; be confined to establishing that the locus discovered in the southern Cape; region of Baja California (specifically, from Rancho La Burrera near the; west base of Sierra de La Laguna, and a Pleistocene lake relic, called; La Laguna, in the same range) is indeed SD.

Time of temperature sensitivity of meiotic drive in Drosophila melanogaster

4508
Erickson, JH, G. D.,  American Naturalist,  95:247-250. 1961-01-06 00:00:00.
In a line of Drosophila melanogaster demonstrating meiotic drive, it was found that the high recovery rate of the X-chromosome could be nearly nullified by temperature treatment. A series of experiments were carried out to determine at what stage of the life-cycle this treatment is effective. The effect is observed to occur during a part of the process of spermatogenesis, either during the primary spermatocyte stage or extending through this and the meiotic divisions which follow.

Inherited male-producing factor in Aedes aegypti

6096
G. B. Craig, W. A. Hickey and R. C. Vandehey,  Science,  132:1887-1889. 1960-12-23 14:59:02.
An inherited factor causes a predominance of males in certain strains and in progeny of single pairs of Aedes aegypti L. This factor appears to be transmitted only by males and is not due to differential mortality, at least in postgametic stages. Mass release of male-producing males might be used in control operations.

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