Scholarly Literature
This is a database of scholarly literature that concentrates currently on natural and engineered selfish genetic elements (gene drives). The latest are shown here.
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Sterile males and females can synergistically suppress wild pests targeted by sterile insect technique
18837Y. Ikegawa, K. Ito, C. Himuro and A. Honma, Journal of Theoretical Biology, 530. 2021-08-23 11:21:38.
We constructed a mathematical model to examine the contribution of sterile males and females to the pest-control effect and the synergy between them. We consider that males seek out and court females in accord with their own female searching ability and preference, and that females subsequently choose one male from among males courting them in accordance with their own preference. Using this model, we compared the pest-control effect of bisexual and unisexual release, focusing on the difference in mating systems of the targeted insects. We showed that for swarm-type mating systems (with few courtship chances with higher encounter rates), bisexual release was the most effective, irrespective of the relative female searching ability between wild and sterile males. In this case, sterile females indirectly reduce wild females mating with either male by absorbing courtship from both wild and sterile males. By contrast, bisexual release is the most effective for scramble-type mating systems (more courtship chances with lower encounter rates) only when the female searching ability of sterile males is lower than that of wild males. In this case, sterile females absorb courtship from males with higher searching abilities. Therefore, the net impact of sterile females depends on the difference in sexual performance between wild and sterile males. Because the sexual performance of sterile insects is often degraded during the process of sterilization, we suggest that bisexual release can be a compatible measure to efficiently suppress wild pest populations.
Cas9-Mediated Gene-Editing in the Black-Legged Tick, Ixodes Scapularis, by Embryo Injection and ReMOT Control.
17197A. a. P. Sharma, Michael N. and Reyes, Jeremiah B. and Chana, Randeep and Yim, Won C. and Heu, Chan C. and Kim, Donghun and Chaverra-Rodriguez, Duverney and Rasgon, Jason L. and Harrell, Robert A. and Nuss, Andrew B. and Gulia-Nuss, Monika,, Cell Reports, 2021-08-20 20:35:08.
Despite their capacity to acquire and pass on an array of debilitating pathogens, research on ticks has lagged behind other arthropod vectors, such as mosquitoes, largely because of a lack of genetic and molecular tools. CRISPR-Cas9 is transforming non-model organism research; however, successful gene editing has not yet been reported in ticks. Technical challenges for injecting tick embryos to attempt gene editing have further slowed research progress. Herein we report a successful tick embryo injection protocol for the black-legged tick, Ixodes scapularis, the first for any chelicerate species, and the use of this protocol for genome editing with CRISPR-Cas9. We also demonstrated for the first time that the ReMOT Control technique can be successfully used to generate genome mutations outside Insecta. Our results provide innovative tools to the tick research community that are essential for advancing our understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing pathogen transmission by tick vectors as well as for understanding the underlying biology of host-vector-pathogen interactions.
CRISPR/Cas9-based functional characterization of the pigmentation gene ebony in Plutella xylostella
18155X. Xu, T. Harvey-Samuel, J. Yang, M. You and L. Alphey, Insect Molecular Biology, 2021-08-20 17:59:44.
Abstract Body pigmentation is an important character of insects in adapting to biotic and abiotic environmental challenges. Additionally, based on the relative ease of screening, several genes involved in insect melanisation have been used in classic genetic studies or as visual markers in constructing transgenic insects. Here, a homolog of the Bombyx mori melanisation-inhibiting gene ebony, associated with the conversion of dopamine to N-?-alanyl dopamine, was identified in a global pest, Plutella xylostella. The CRISPR/Cas9 system was applied to generate multiple Pxebony knockout alleles which were crossed to produce a Pxebony knockout strain, showing darker pigmentation in larvae, pupae and adults, compared with wildtype. Interestingly, we observed that Pxebony heterozygotes displayed an intermediate darkened phenotype, indicating partial dominance between the knockout and wildtype alleles. The fitness costs of Pxebony-deficiency were also assessed in the mutant strain, indicating that embryo hatchability and larval survival were significantly reduced, while the eclosion rate was not obviously affected. Our work provides a potential target for exploring CRISPR-based genetics-control systems in this economically important pest lepidopteran.
Insect pest management in the age of synthetic biology
18682R. Mateos Fernández, M. Petek, I. Gerasymenko, M. Juteršek, Š. Baebler, K. Kallam, E. Moreno Giménez, J. Gondolf, A. Nordmann, K. Gruden, D. Orzaez and N. J. Patron, Plant Biotechnology Journal, 2021-08-20 13:09:26.
Arthropod crop pests are responsible for 20% of global annual crop losses, a figure predicted to increase in a changing climate where the ranges of numerous species are projected to expand. At the same time, many insect species are beneficial, acting as pollinators and predators of pest species. For thousands of years, humans have used increasingly sophisticated chemical formulations to control insect pests but, as the scale of agriculture expanded to meet the needs of the global population, concerns about the negative impacts of agricultural practices on biodiversity have grown. While biological solutions, such as biological control agents and pheromones, have previously had relatively minor roles in pest management, biotechnology has opened the door to numerous new approaches for controlling insect pests. In this review, we look at how advances in synthetic biology and biotechnology are providing new options for pest control. We discuss emerging technologies for engineering resistant crops and insect populations and examine advances in biomanufacturing that are enabling the production of new products for pest control.
New mosquito control tools are critical
18148L. Braack, Open Access Government, 2021-08-17 17:38:18.
Globally, we are making slow headway in the fight against malaria, but there has been progress, nonetheless. Since 2000, 39 countries and territories have managed to rid themselves of malaria; the most recent is China. Existing tools can achieve local elimination, but the battle is becoming harder and mosquitoes and parasites are able to change their defences, which is why we too have to constantly adapt and respond with better tools and strategies. We should also be on high alert; malaria has been distracting our attention from what will be our next global public health threat: mosquito-borne arboviruses such as Dengue, Chikungunya, Zika, Yellow Fever, West Nile Virus, Usutu, and a host of others few people have heard of. These arboviruses are spreading across the globe, each year more abundant. The mosquitoes that transmit them pose a different set of challenges, as most of them bite by day, with very different breeding habits. We must increase public awareness of the rising threat and invest much greater research effort to find ways to combat these viruses and mosquitoes.
Genetically Modified Mosquitoes
18286E. P. Caragata, Y. Lee and E. A. Buckner, UF IFAS Extension Service, 2021-08-17 14:49:18.
Genetically modified (GM) mosquitoes are controversial, partly because of misinformation. This publication provides science-based information about GM mosquitoes to the public and anyone involved in mosquito control. It explains what GM mosquitoes are and why they are being investigated as a tool for mosquito control. Describes a GM mosquito pilot project in Florida, and includes FAQs and answers explaining how GM mosquitoes are created and their potential impacts on people and the environment.
A Monte Carlo study to investigate the feasibility to use the Moroccan panoramic irradiator in sterile insect technique programs
18159A. Aknouch, Y. El-ouardi, L. Hamroud, R. Sebihi, M. Mouhib, M. Yjjou, A. Didi and A. Choukri, Radiation and Environmental Biophysics, 2021-08-14 18:10:19.
Mediterranean fly pest (Ceratitis) is one of the most destructive pests of fruit species in Morocco. The sterile insect technique (SIT) is an environmentally friendly strategy that uses ionizing radiation to sterilize adult insects. Morocco has a panoramic gamma irradiator used to irradiate agri-food products. This irradiator is not dedicated to SIT programs due to its geometry that does not allow to obtain a dose uniformity ratio (DUR) recommended for such applications. This article presents a Monte Carlo study to investigate the feasibility of using the panoramic gamma irradiator at the National Institute for Agronomic Research (NIAR) of Tangier, Morocco, to setting up SIT methods and contributing to Ceratitis control programs. The Monte Carlo method was used to simulate the concrete bunker in which the panoramic gamma irradiator is installed. To obtain a recommended DUR required for SIT programs, two cells similar of the Gammacell-220 irradiator, which is mainly used in the SIT programs around the world, were simulated inside the concrete bunker. The simulation and calculations were performed using the MCNPX-2.7e Monte Carlo simulation code. It is demonstrated that at both investigated positions, the spatial distribution of dose rates in the two modeled irradiation cells, which were similar to a gammacell-220 irradiator cell, are uniform enough that the cells can be used for SIT programs. It is concluded that the panoramic irradiator at NIAR can be used to contribute to the control of Mediterranean fly pest and other insect pests in Morocco.
Knowing and Controlling: Engineering Ideals and Gene Drive for Invasive Species Control in Aotearoa New Zealand
18025C. H. Ross, Nature Remade: Engineering Life, Envisioning Worlds, 2021-08-10 17:51:46.
On the islands of Aotearoa, also called New Zealand, invasive species have been a prominent and persistent concern for local ecosystems. Traditional methods of biological control, though, can be difficult to implement and often have harmful side- effects for the environment and human health. Recent developments in genetic engineering have led to the creation of a new technology called gene drive, which some have suggested may pro-vide a safer, easier alternative way to “restore damaged ecosystems and save endangered wildlife by genetically removing invasive species.” 1 While the promises of gene drive for invasive species control have attracted the attention of many in Aotearoa New Zealand interested in preserving or restoring the islands’ native environment, at the same time it has prompted calls for caution regarding their controllability and possible unintended consequences of their use. 2 However, the consideration of gene drive for the control of invasive species in Aotearoa New Zealand is more than just an issue of a controversial use of emerging biotechnology. At stake also are critical questions about what it means to know and control life. What are the kinds of knowledge that enable and underwrite the notions of controlling of life? If gene drive confers the power to control inva-sive species, who decides whether and how that control is exercised and with what responsibilities? And, crucially, what visions of the world are embedded in the aspirations of scientifically knowing and technologically controlling life?Controlling life has long been a central aspiration of the biological sciences. In the early twentieth century, aspirations to greater control over life manifested in rigorous laboratory experimentation, attempts to engineer organisms to be more amenable to human purposes, and explanatory commitments to a mechanistic conception of life. 3 Mechanistic approaches have been ubiquitous in biological practice aimed at bringing living things and their functions into the purview of human intention and volition by isolating, manipulating, and better understanding the function of more fundamental parts. 4 The widespread mechanistic approaches in biology
Analysis of the Segregation Distortion of FcRAN1 Genotypes Based on Whole-Genome Resequencing of Fig (Ficus carica L.) Breeding Parents
18171H. Ikegami, K. Shirasawa, H. Yakushiji, S. Yabe, M. Sato, T. Hayashi, K. Tashiro and H. Nogata, Frontiers in Plant Science, 12:8. 2021-08-10 14:56:28.
The common fig (Ficus carica L.) has a gynodioecious breeding system, and its sex phenotype is an important trait for breeding because only female plant fruits are edible. During breeding to select for female plants, we analyzed the FcRAN1 genotype, which is strongly associated with the sex phenotype. In 12 F-1 populations derived from 13 cross combinations, the FcRAN1 genotype segregation ratio was 1:1, whereas the M119226 x H238-107 hybridization resulted in an extremely male-biased segregation ratio (178:7 = male:female). This finding suggests that the segregation distortion was caused by some genetic factor(s). A whole-genome resequencing of breeding parents (paternal and maternal lines) identified 9,061 high-impact SNPs in the parents. A genome-wide linkage analysis exploring the gene(s) responsible for the distortion revealed 194 high-impact SNPs specific to Caprifig6085 (i.e., seed parent ancestor) and 215 high-impact SNPs specific to H238-107 (i.e., pollen parent) in 201 annotated genes. A comparison between the annotated genes and the genes required for normal embryo or gametophyte development and function identified several candidate genes possibly responsible for the segregation distortion. This is the first report describing segregation distortion in F. carica.
A common gene drive language eases regulatory process and eco-evolutionary extensions
18022P. Verma, R. G. Reeves and C. S. Gokhale, BMC Ecology and Evolution, 21:156. 2021-08-09 14:36:22.
Synthetic gene drive technologies aim to spread transgenic constructs into wild populations even when they impose organismal fitness disadvantages. The extraordinary diversity of plausible drive mechanisms and the range of selective parameters they may encounter makes it very difficult to convey their relative predicted properties, particularly where multiple approaches are combined. The sheer number of published manuscripts in this field, experimental and theoretical, the numerous techniques resulting in an explosion in the gene drive vocabulary hinder the regulators’ point of view. We address this concern by defining a simplified parameter based language of synthetic drives. Employing the classical population dynamics approach, we show that different drive construct (replacement) mechanisms can be condensed and evaluated on an equal footing even where they incorporate multiple replacement drives approaches. Using a common language, it is then possible to compare various model properties, a task desired by regulators and policymakers. The generalization allows us to extend the study of the invasion dynamics of replacement drives analytically and, in a spatial setting, the resilience of the released drive constructs. The derived framework is available as a standalone tool. Besides comparing available drive constructs, our tool is also useful for educational purpose. Users can also explore the evolutionary dynamics of future hypothetical combination drive scenarios. Thus, our results appraise the properties and robustness of drives and provide an intuitive and objective way for risk assessment, informing policies, and enhancing public engagement with proposed and future gene drive approaches.
Red queen’s race: rapid evolutionary dynamics of an expanding family of meiotic drive factors and their hpRNA suppressors
17957J. Vedanayagam, C.-J. Lin and E. C. Lai, bioRxiv, 2021.08.05.454923. 2021-08-06 16:51:10.
Meiotic drivers are a class of selfish genetic elements that are widespread across eukaryotes. Their activities are often detrimental to organismal fitness and thus trigger drive suppression to ensure fair segregation during meiosis. Accordingly, their existence is frequently hidden in genomes, and their molecular functions are little known. Here, we trace evolutionary steps that generated the Dox meiotic drive system in Drosophila simulans (Dsim), which distorts male:female balance (sex-ratio) by depleting male progeny. We show that Dox emerged via stepwise mobilization and acquisition of portions of multiple D. melanogaster genes, including the sperm chromatin packaging gene protamine. Moreover, we reveal novel Dox homologs in Dsim and massive, recent, amplification of Dox superfamily genes specifically on X chromosomes of its closest sister species D. mauritiana (Dmau) and D. sechellia (Dsech). The emergence of Dox superfamily genes is tightly associated with 1.688 family satellite repeats that flank de novo genomic copies. In concert, we find coordinated emergence and diversification of autosomal hairpin RNA/siRNAs loci that target subsets of Dox superfamily genes across simulans clade species. Finally, an independent set of protamine amplifications the Y chromosome of D. melanogaster indicates that protamine genes are frequent and recurrent players in sex chromosome dynamics. Overall, we reveal fierce genetic arms races between meiotic drive factors and siRNA suppressors associated with recent speciation.Competing Interest StatementThe authors have declared no competing interest.
Gene drives gaining speed
17972E. Bier, Nature Reviews Genetics, 2021-08-06 13:50:56.
Gene drives are selfish genetic elements that are transmitted to progeny at super-Mendelian (>50%) frequencies. Recently developed CRISPR–Cas9-based gene-drive systems are highly efficient in laboratory settings, offering the potential to reduce the prevalence of vector-borne diseases, crop pests and non-native invasive species. However, concerns have been raised regarding the potential unintended impacts of gene-drive systems. This Review summarizes the phenomenal progress in this field, focusing on optimal design features for full-drive elements (drives with linked Cas9 and guide RNA components) that either suppress target mosquito populations or modify them to prevent pathogen transmission, allelic drives for updating genetic elements, mitigating strategies including trans-complementing split-drives and genetic neutralizing elements, and the adaptation of drive technology to other organisms. These scientific advances, combined with ethical and social considerations, will facilitate the transparent and responsible advancement of these technologies towards field implementation.
The Promise of Genetics and Genomics for Improving Invasive Mammal Management on Islands
17936B. T. Burgess, R. L. Irvine, G. R. Howald and M. A. Russello, Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 9. 2021-08-03 13:21:15.
Invasive species are major contributors to global biodiversity decline. Invasive mammalian species (IMS), in particular, have profound negative effects in island systems that contain disproportionally high levels of species richness and endemism. The eradication and control of IMS have become important conservation tools for managing species invasions on islands, yet these management operations are often subject to failure due to knowledge gaps surrounding species- and system-specific characteristics, including invasion pathways and contemporary migration patterns. Here, we synthesize the literature on ways in which genetic and genomic tools have effectively informed IMS management on islands, specifically associated with the development and modification of biosecurity protocols, and the design and implementation of eradication and control programs. In spite of their demonstrated utility, we then explore the challenges that are preventing genetics and genomics from being implemented more frequently in IMS management operations from both academic and non-academic perspectives, and suggest possible solutions for breaking down these barriers. Finally, we discuss the potential application of genome editing to the future management of invasive species on islands, including the current state of the field and why islands may be effective targets for this emerging technology.
Invasive Mice and Engineered Genes
17952W. M. Adams and K. H. Redford, Yale University Press Blog, 2021-08-02 12:36:13.
On Gough Island, a steep speck of land deep in the South Atlantic, giant mice eat albatross chicks as they sit on their nests. They are house mice, accidental arrivals on the ships of long-dead sealers. But they have lost their secretive, timid, mousy ways. Over numerous generations, on an island without predators, they have become predators themselves. They have grown bigger, and fierce. The internet offers gruesome videos of Tristan albatross chicks being eaten alive in the night. The house mice of Gough Island are examples of one of the most serious and intractable drivers of biodiversity decline, invasive species. Not all species introduced by people outside their normal range become invasive, but invasive species are the most common threat to amphibians, reptiles, and mammals on the IUCN Red List, and have been a contributing cause in a quarter of plant extinctions and a third of animal extinctions in recent centuries. Traditional tools for addressing invasive species include traps, guns, fences, and particularly poisons. Though often effective, these often have undesired, and sometimes unexpected, knock-on effects on native species. Synthetic biology, the application of new genetic tools like CRISPR, is being explored as a source of new approaches to control with fewer side effects. The use of such methods in conservation blurs the distinction between what is natural and what is human-made.
2021 WHO guidelines on genetically modified mosquitoes
18084M. Makoni, The Lancet Microbe, 2:e353. 2021-08-01 17:27:59.
On May 19, 2021, WHO updated its guidelines for research and development on genetically modified mosquitoes, which define the standards for decision-making about how and when testing should proceed and describe best practices to ensure that research done in a public health context is safe, ethical, and rigorous. TDR, WHO's Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, and the GeneConvene Global Collaborative, an initiative of the Foundation for the National Institutes of Health, developed the updated guidelines building on the 2014 recommendations, integrating the latest advancements in mosquito genetic modification. “Vector-borne diseases are a major global public health issue. Over 100 countries are endemic for diseases such as dengue, malaria, and Zika. Dengue alone puts 2·5 billion people at risk”, says John Reeder (TDR and Department of Research for Health, WHO). Attacking the mosquitoes is an effective way of controlling the transmission of these diseases, but it is a massive task. “We are badly in need of new technologies that will change the game and allow effective, widespread control”, Reeder told The Lancet Microbe.
Host-associated differentiation of target pests should be assessed before using gene drive as a pest control tool – an opinion
17955R. F. Medina, Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 2021-08-01 12:42:29.
Abstract Advances in gene editing have made feasible the potential use of gene drive for pest control. Ecological risk assessments will certainly be required before this technology can be released into open fields. In this article I argue for the importance to include host-associated differentiation (HAD) as part of ecological risk assessment models due to its potential to modulate gene drive spread and risk. Depending on context, HAD may hamper or facilitate pest control efforts using gene drives. Overlooking HAD may impair pest suppression goals and inflate estimations of effective population sizes whereas its inclusion within gene drive deployment strategies, as a form of ecological containment, may facilitate gene drive implementation under specific scenarios. Because HAD varies geographically and among closely related species, it will need to be assessed on a case-by-case basis. Failure to incorporate HAD within ecological risk assessment models may undermine pest control goals and diminish the accuracy of estimated ecological risks associated with gene drive releases.
Transgenic expression of Nix converts genetic females into males and allows automated sex sorting in Aedes albopictus
17888C. Lutrat, R. P. Olmo, T. Baldet, J. Bouyer and E. Marois, bioRxiv, 2021.07.28.454191. 2021-07-29 12:43:42.
Aedes albopictus is a major vector of arboviruses. Better understanding of its sex determination is crucial for developing mosquito control tools, especially genetic sexing strains. In Aedes aegypti, Nix is the primary gene responsible for masculinization and Nix-expressing genetic females develop into fertile, albeit flightless, males. In Ae. albopictus, Nix has also been implicated in masculinization but its role remains to be further characterized. In this work, we established Ae. albopictus transgenic lines ectopically expressing Nix. Several were composed exclusively of genetic females, with transgenic individuals being phenotypic and functional males due to the expression of the Nix transgene. Their reproductive fitness was marginally impaired, while their flight performance was similar to controls. Overall, our results show that Nix is sufficient for full masculinization in Ae. albopictus. Moreover, the transgene construct contains a fluorescence marker allowing efficient automated sex sorting. Consequently, such strains constitute valuable sexing strains for genetic control.Competing Interest StatementThe authors have declared no competing interest.
Horizontal Transmission of the Symbiont Microsporidia MB in Anopheles arabiensis
17856G. Nattoh, T. Maina, E. E. Makhulu, L. Mbaisi, E. Mararo, F. G. Otieno, T. Bukhari, T. O. Onchuru, E. Teal, J. Paredes, J. L. Bargul, D. M. Mburu, E. A. Onyango, G. Magoma, S. P. Sinkins and J. K. Herren, Frontiers in Microbiology, 12. 2021-07-28 13:43:29.
The recently discovered Anopheles symbiont, Microsporidia MB, has a strong malaria transmission-blocking phenotype in Anopheles arabiensis, the predominant Anopheles gambiae species complex member in many active transmission areas in eastern Africa. The ability of Microsporidia MB to block Plasmodium transmission together with vertical transmission and avirulence makes it a candidate for the development of a symbiont-based malaria transmission blocking strategy. We investigate the characteristics and efficiencies of Microsporidia MB transmission between An. arabiensis mosquitoes. We show that Microsporidia MB is not transmitted between larvae but is effectively transmitted horizontally between adult mosquitoes. Notably, Microsporidia MB was only found to be transmitted between male and female An. arabiensis, suggesting sexual horizontal transmission. In addition, Microsporidia MB cells were observed infecting the An. arabiensis ejaculatory duct. Female An. arabiensis that acquire Microsporidia MB horizontally are able to transmit the symbiont vertically to their offspring. We also investigate the possibility that Microsporidia MB can infect alternate hosts that live in the same habitats as their An. arabiensis hosts, but find no other non-anopheline hosts. Notably, Microsporidia MB infections were found in another primary malaria African vector, Anopheles funestus s.s. The finding that Microsporidia MB can be transmitted horizontally is relevant for the development of dissemination strategies to control malaria that are based on the targeted release of Microsporidia MB infected Anopheles mosquitoes.
Gene-drive suppression of mosquito populations in large cages as a bridge between lab and field
17853A. Hammond, P. Pollegioni, T. Persampieri, A. North, R. Minuz, A. Trusso, A. Bucci, K. Kyrou, I. Morianou, A. Simoni, T. Nolan, R. Müller and A. Crisanti, Nature Communications, 12:4589. 2021-07-28 12:31:16.
CRISPR-based gene-drives targeting the gene doublesex in the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae effectively suppressed the reproductive capability of mosquito populations reared in small laboratory cages. To bridge the gap between laboratory and the field, this gene-drive technology must be challenged with vector ecology.Here we report the suppressive activity of the gene-drive in age-structured An. gambiae populations in large indoor cages that permit complex feeding and reproductive behaviours.The gene-drive element spreads rapidly through the populations, fully supresses the population within one year and without selecting for resistance to the gene drive. Approximate Bayesian computation allowed retrospective inference of life-history parameters from the large cages and a more accurate prediction of gene-drive behaviour under more ecologically-relevant settings. Generating data to bridge laboratory and field studies for invasive technologies is challenging. Our study represents a paradigm for the stepwise and sound development of vector control tools based on gene-drive.
Oxitec and MosquitoMate in the United States: lessons for the future of gene drive mosquito control
17890C. E. Schairer, J. Najera, A. A. James, O. S. Akbari and C. S. Bloss, Pathogens and Global Health, 2021-07-27 12:51:01.
ABSTRACTIn response to growing concerns regarding mosquito-borne diseases, scientists are developing novel systems of vector control. Early examples include Oxitec?s OX513A genetically-engineered mosquito and MosquitoMate?s Wolbachia-infected mosquito, and systems using ?gene-drive? are in development. Systems based on genetic engineering are controversial and institutions around the world are grappling with the question of who should have a say in how such technologies are field-tested and used. Based on media coverage and public records, we created comparative timelines of the efforts of Oxitec and MosquitoMate to navigate federal and local governance and bring their products to market in the United States. We analyze these timelines with particular attention to the role of public input in technology governance. These cases illustrate how governance of technology in the US is diverse, complex, and opaque. Further, the public response to proposed field trials of the Oxitec product highlights inconsistencies between public expectations for governance and actual practice. As gene-drive mosquito control products develop, both federal and local agencies will find their legitimacy tested without a better procedure for transparently integrating public input.
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